Light – Reflection and Refraction

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1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. 2. The incident ray, the normal to the mirror at the point of incidence, and the reflected ray all lie in the same plane.

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The principal focus of a concave mirror is the point on the principal axis where parallel rays of light converge after reflection from the mirror. It is represented by the letter F.

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For spherical mirrors with small apertures: R = 2f This means the focal length is half the radius of curvature, and the principal focus lies midway between the pole and center of curvature.

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Mirror formula: 1/v + 1/u = 1/f Where: - v = image distance - u = object distance - f = focal length This formula is valid for all spherical mirrors and all object positions when using proper sign con

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Magnification (m) = Height of image (h')/Height of object (h) = h'/h Also, m = -v/u Negative magnification indicates real and inverted image. Positive magnification indicates virtual and erect image.

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Concave mirror: Image at focus F, highly diminished (point-sized), real and inverted. Convex mirror: Image at focus F (behind mirror), highly diminished (point-sized), virtual and erect.

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When object is between P and F of a concave mirror: - Image forms behind the mirror - Image is enlarged - Image is virtual and erect This is the only case where concave mirror forms virtual image.

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Convex mirrors are preferred because: 1. They always give erect image (though diminished) 2. They have wider field of view due to outward curvature 3. They enable drivers to see much larger area than