Electromagnetic Waves

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Displacement current is a current due to changing electric field, introduced by Maxwell. It is given by id = ε₀(dΦE/dt) where ΦE is electric flux. Maxwell introduced this concept to resolve inconsiste

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id = ε₀(dΦE/dt) where: - id = displacement current - ε₀ = permittivity of free space (8.85 × 10⁻¹² F/m) - ΦE = electric flux - dΦE/dt = rate of change of electric flux with time

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When applying Ampere's law ∮B·dl = μ₀i to different surfaces with the same boundary around a charging capacitor, Maxwell found different values of current. For surfaces passing through the wire, curre

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∮B·dl = μ₀ic + μ₀ε₀(dΦE/dt) where: - ic = conduction current - μ₀ε₀(dΦE/dt) = displacement current term This law states that magnetic field is produced by both conduction current and changing electric

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1. ∮E·dA = Q/ε₀ (Gauss's law for electricity) 2. ∮B·dA = 0 (Gauss's law for magnetism) 3. ∮E·dl = -dΦB/dt (Faraday's law) 4. ∮B·dl = μ₀ic + μ₀ε₀(dΦE/dt) (Ampere-Maxwell law)

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Accelerated charges are the sources of electromagnetic waves. Neither stationary charges nor charges in uniform motion can produce electromagnetic waves. Examples include: - Oscillating charges - Acce

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In electromagnetic waves: 1. Electric field E and magnetic field B are perpendicular to each other 2. Both E and B are perpendicular to direction of wave propagation 3. E and B oscillate in phase (rea

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Ex = E₀ sin(kz - ωt) By = B₀ sin(kz - ωt) where: - E₀, B₀ = amplitudes - k = 2π/λ (wave number) - ω = 2πν (angular frequency) - kz - ωt = phase