The Solid State

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The three states are: 1) Gas - particles have maximum kinetic energy, move freely, weak intermolecular forces, highly compressible. 2) Liquid - particles have moderate kinetic energy, can flow, modera

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Crystalline solids: Particles arranged in regular, periodic pattern with long-range order. Examples: NaCl, sucrose, diamond. Amorphous solids: Particles have only short-range order, random arrangement

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Steno's law states that for a given crystalline substance, the interfacial angle between any two corresponding faces remains constant regardless of the size and shape of the crystal. The interfacial a

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1) Ionic solids - Coulombic forces between ions (NaCl, ZnS) - hard, brittle, high melting point. 2) Molecular solids - van der Waals forces between molecules (I₂, CO₂, H₂O) - soft, low melting point.

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Melting point indicates the strength of binding forces between constituent particles. Strong forces → High melting point: Ionic solids (NaCl: 1077K) due to strong coulombic forces; Covalent solids (di

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Square close packing: Spheres arranged in aligned rows, each sphere touches 4 others, less efficient packing. Hexagonal close packing: Second row spheres fit in depressions of first row, each sphere t

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Tetrahedral void: Formed when a sphere of the second layer rests on a triangular void of the first layer, surrounded by 4 spheres arranged at corners of a tetrahedron. Coordination number = 4. Octahed

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1) Hexagonal Close Packing (hcp): ABAB... pattern where third layer aligns with first layer. Tetrahedral voids of second layer are occupied. 2) Cubic Close Packing (ccp): ABCABC... pattern where third