Optics

Light exhibits dual nature

Light exhibits dual nature - wave and particle properties. It travels at speed c = 3×10⁸ m/s in vacuum. The absolute refractive index n = c/v relates

Two fundamental laws

Two fundamental laws: (1) Incident ray, reflected ray, and normal lie in the same plane (2) Angle of incidence equals angle of reflection (i = r). App

For spherical mirrors

For spherical mirrors: 1/f = 1/v + 1/u, where f = R/2 (focal length), v (image distance), u (object distance), R (radius of curvature). Lateral magnif

At interface between media with refractive

At interface between media with refractive indices n₁ and n₂: n₁sin θ₁ = n₂sin θ₂. Refracted ray bends toward normal when entering denser medium, away

When light travels from denser

When light travels from denser to rarer medium at angle greater than critical angle θc (where sin θc = 1/μ), complete reflection occurs. No refraction