Thermodynamics

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Thermal equilibrium is the state when two systems in thermal contact do not transfer heat between each other. They are at the same temperature. This concept is fundamental for temperature measurement

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The Zeroth Law states: 'If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third system, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.' This law enables us to define temperature as a measur

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Internal energy (U) is the total energy associated with the random, disordered motion of molecules in a system. Components include: (1) Translational KE of molecules (2) Rotational KE (for polyatomic

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The First Law states that the change in internal energy of a system equals the heat supplied minus the work done by the system. Mathematical forms: ΔU = Q - W or Q = ΔU + W. This is an extension of en

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Given: n = 2 mol, Vi = 10 L, Vf = 30 L, T = 300 K For isothermal process: W = nRT ln(Vf/Vi) W = 2 × 8.314 × 300 × ln(30/10) W = 4988.4 × ln(3) W = 4988.4 × 1.099 W = 5480 J = 5.48 kJ Positive work ind

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Isothermal Process (Constant Temperature): • ΔT = 0, so ΔU = 0 • Equation of state: PV = constant • Q = W (all heat converts to work) • Work: W = nRT ln(Vf/Vi) = nRT ln(Pi/Pf) • Very slow process main

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Isobaric Process (Constant Pressure): • Δp = 0 • Work: W = pΔV = nR(Tf - Ti) • Heat: Q = nCp(Tf - Ti) • Internal energy: ΔU = nCv(Tf - Ti) • Relationship: Cp = Cv + R • Examples: Boiling water at atmo

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Isochoric Process (Constant Volume): • ΔV = 0 • Work: W = 0 (no volume change) • Heat: Q = ΔU = nCvΔT • All supplied energy increases internal energy • Examples: Heating gas in rigid container, pressu