Light - Reflection and Refraction

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1. The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection (∠i = ∠r) 2. The incident ray, reflected ray, and normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane. These laws apply to all reflectin

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The object should be placed at the center of curvature (C). Since focal length f = 20 cm, radius of curvature R = 2f = 40 cm When object is at C (40 cm from mirror), the image forms at C itself with s

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Convex mirrors curve outwards, causing parallel light rays to diverge after reflection. The reflected rays appear to come from a point behind the mirror (virtual focus). Since the rays never actually

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Light bends towards the normal when entering water from air because water is denser than air. Snell's Law: sin i / sin r = constant (refractive index) Refractive index of water = 1.33, meaning light s

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This is due to refraction of light at the air-water interface. Light from the underwater part of the pencil bends away from the normal when exiting water into air. Our eyes trace the light rays in str

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Steps: 1. Hold the convex lens towards the Sun 2. Place a paper screen behind the lens 3. Move the screen until you get a sharp, bright image of the Sun 4. Measure the distance between lens and screen

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Given: f = +15 cm, u = -30 cm (using sign convention) Using lens formula: 1/v - 1/u = 1/f 1/v - 1/(-30) = 1/15 1/v + 1/30 = 1/15 1/v = 1/15 - 1/30 = 1/30 v = +30 cm (real image) Magnification m = v/u

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For spherical mirrors: R = 2f Where R is radius of curvature and f is focal length. This means the principal focus lies exactly midway between the pole and center of curvature. Example: If focal lengt