Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

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The laws of reflection are: 1. The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection (∠i = ∠r) 2. The incident ray, reflected ray, and normal to the surface at the point of incidence all lie in the sa…

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Snell's law states that the ratio of sine of angle of incidence to sine of angle of refraction is constant for a given pair of media. Mathematically: sin i / sin r = n₂₁ (constant) Where n₂₁ is the …

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Mirror equation: 1/v + 1/u = 1/f Where: - u = object distance from pole - v = image distance from pole - f = focal length of mirror This equation relates object distance, image distance, and focal l…

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For a spherical mirror: f = R/2 Where: - f = focal length - R = radius of curvature The focal length is half the radius of curvature for paraxial rays.

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Linear magnification (m) is the ratio of height of image to height of object. Formula: m = h'/h = -v/u Where: - h' = image height - h = object height - v = image distance - u = object distance Nega…

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Total internal reflection occurs when light traveling from a denser to rarer medium is completely reflected back into the denser medium. Conditions: 1. Light must travel from denser to rarer medium 2…

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Optical fibres work on the principle of total internal reflection. They consist of: - Core: Higher refractive index material - Cladding: Lower refractive index material Light undergoes repeated total…

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Lens equation: 1/v - 1/u = 1/f Where: - u = object distance from optical centre - v = image distance from optical centre - f = focal length of lens Used for both convex and concave lenses, for real …