Solutions

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A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more components with uniform composition and properties throughout. Types: Gaseous solutions (O₂ + N₂), Liquid solutions (glucose in water), Solid solutio

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Formula: Mass % = (Mass of component/Total mass) × 100 Step 1: Total mass = 20g + 180g = 200g Step 2: Mass % of NaCl = (20/200) × 100 = 10% Answer: 10% by mass

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Henry's Law: At constant temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the solution. Mathematical form: p = KH × x Where p = partia

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Formula: Molality (m) = moles of solute/kg of solvent Step 1: Moles of NaCl = 5.85/58.5 = 0.1 mol Step 2: Mass of water = 500g = 0.5 kg Step 3: Molality = 0.1/0.5 = 0.2 m Answer: 0.2 molal

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Raoult's Law: The partial vapour pressure of each component in solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction. For binary solutions: p₁ = p₁⁰ × x₁ and p₂ = p₂⁰ × x₂ Total pressure: ptotal = p₁

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Step 1: Moles of ethanol = 46/46 = 1 mol Step 2: Moles of water = 54/18 = 3 mol Step 3: Total moles = 1 + 3 = 4 mol Step 4: Mole fraction of ethanol = 1/4 = 0.25 Answer: 0.25

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Positive deviation occurs when A-B interactions are weaker than A-A and B-B interactions. This makes molecules easier to escape, increasing vapour pressure above ideal value. Example: Ethanol + Aceton

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Colligative properties depend only on number of solute particles, not their nature. 1. Relative lowering of vapour pressure: (p₁⁰-p₁)/p₁⁰ = x₂ 2. Elevation of boiling point: ΔTb = Kb×m 3. Depression o