Nucle

A nucleus consists of protons (positively

A nucleus consists of protons (positively charged) and neutrons (neutral), collectively called nucleons. The atomic number Z equals the number of prot

Isotopes are atoms of the same

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with identical Z but different N values. They have the same chemical properties but different masses. Nuclear s

Einstein's equation E = mc² shows

Einstein's equation E = mc² shows mass and energy are interconvertible. The atomic mass unit (u) is defined as 1/12 the mass of ¹²C atom = 1.66 × 10⁻²

Binding energy (Eb = ΔMc²)

Binding energy (Eb = ΔMc²) is the energy required to separate a nucleus into individual nucleons. Binding energy per nucleon peaks around A = 56 at ~8

Nuclear force is much stronger than

Nuclear force is much stronger than electromagnetic or gravitational forces but operates only over very short ranges (~1 fm). It's attractive beyond 0